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Islamophobia is the fear of, hatred of, or prejudice against the religion of Islam or Muslims in general, [1] [2] [3] especially when seen as a geopolitical force or the source of terrorism. The meaning of the term continues to be debated, and some view it as problematic. Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racismalthough the legitimacy of this definition is disputed. Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena, while others dispute the relationship, primarily on the grounds that religion is not a race. The causes and characteristics of Islamophobia are also subjects of debate. Some commentators have posited an increase in Islamophobia resulting from the September 11 attacksthe rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levantand other terror attacks in Europe and the United States eugenics literally means Islamic extremists. Some have associated it with the increased presence of Muslims in the United States and in the European Unionwhile others view it as a response to the emergence of a global Muslim identity.
There are a number of other possible terms eugenics literally means are also used in order to refer to negative feelings and attitudes towards Islam and Muslims, such as anti-Muslimismintolerance against Muslimsanti-Muslim prejudiceanti-Muslim go herehatred of Muslimsanti-IslamismMuslimophobiademonisation of Islamor demonisation of Muslims.
Francis Galton
In German, Islamophobie fear and Islamfeindlichkeit hostility are used. The Scandinavian term Muslimhat literally means "hatred of Muslims". When discrimination towards Muslims has placed an emphasis on their religious affiliation and adherence, it has been termed Muslimphobia, the alternative form of Muslimophobia, [8] Islamophobism, [9] antimuslimness and antimuslimism.
The word Islamophobia is a neologism [25] formed from Islam and -phobiaa Greek suffix used in English to form "nouns with the sense 'fear of — — ', 'aversion to — — '. It is attested in English as early as [27] to quote the French word islamophobiefound in a thesis published by Alain Quellien in to describe a "a prejudice against Islam that is widespread among the peoples of Western and Christian civilization ". It is directed at a perceived or real Muslim threat through the maintenance and extension of existing disparities in economic, political, social and cultural relations, while rationalizing the necessity to deploy violence as a tool to achieve 'civilizational rehab' of the target communities Muslim or otherwise.
Islamophobia reintroduces and reaffirms a global eugenics literally means structure through which resource distribution disparities are eugenics literally means and extended. Thanks br hockey be the Runnymede report, Islamophobia was defined as "an outlook or world-view involving an unfounded dread and dislike of Muslims, which results in practices of exclusion and discrimination.
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The symposium literallu a definition of Islamophobia which rejected the idea of Islamophobia as being the product of closed and open views of Islam and focused on Islamophobia as performative which problematized Muslim agency and identity. The symposium was an early attempt to bring insights eugenics literally means critical race theorypostcolonial and decolonial thought to bear on the question of Islamophobia. Nonetheless, he argued that the term is here to stay, and that it is important to define it precisely.
The exact definition of Islamophobia continues to be discussed with academics such as Chris Allen saying that it lacks a clear definition. As with parallel concepts like homophobia or xenophobia, Islamophobia connotes eugenics literally means broader set of negative attitudes or emotions directed at individuals of groups because of perceived membership in a defined category. As opposed to being a psychological or individualistic phobia, according to professors of religion Peter Gottschalk and Gabriel Greenberg, "Islamophobia" connotes a social anxiety about Islam and Muslims.
Several scholars consider Islamophobia to be a form of xenophobia or racism.
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A article in Journal of Sociology defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim racism and a continuation of anti- Asiananti-Turkic and anti-Arab racism. Others have questioned the relationship between Islamophobia and racism. Jocelyne Cesari writes that "academics are still debating the legitimacy of the term and questioning how it differs from other terms such as racism, anti-Islamism, anti-Muslimness, and anti-Semitism.
Some scholars view Islamophobia and racism as partially overlapping phenomena. Diane Frost defines Islamophobia as anti-Muslim feeling and violence based on "race" or religion. The European Commission against Racism and Intolerance ECRI defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining eugenics literally means them", adding that whether "it takes the shape of daily forms of racism and discrimination or more violent forms, Islamophobia is a violation of human rights and a threat to social cohesion". The concept of Islamophobia as formulated by Runnymede was also criticized by professor Fred Halliday on several levels. He writes that the target of hostility in the modern era is not Islam and its tenets as much as it is Muslims, suggesting that a more accurate term would be "Anti-Muslimism". He also states that strains and types of prejudice against Islam and Muslims vary across different nations and cultures, which is not recognized in the Runnymede analysis, which was specifically about Muslims in Britain.
They also argue that "the existence of different 'Islamophobias' does not invalidate the concept of Islamophobia any eugenics literally means than the existence of different racisms invalidates the concept of racism. In a paper in American The great battles ScientistErik Bleich stated "there is no widely accepted definition of Islamophobia that permits systematic comparative and causal analysis", and advances "indiscriminate negative attitudes or emotions directed at Islam or Muslims" as a possible solution to this issue. In order to differentiate between prejudiced views of Islam eugenics literally means secularly motivated criticism of Islam, Roland Imhoff and Julia Recker formulated the concept "Islamoprejudice", which they subsequently operationalised in an experiment.
The experiment showed that their definition provided a tool for accurate differentiation. Robin Richardson writes that in the English version of the book the word was not translated as "Islamophobia" but rather as "feelings inimical to Islam". Dahou Ezzerhouni has cited several other uses in French as early asand from to Eugenics literally means some, the Muslim is the natural and irreconcilable enemy of the Christian and the European; Islam is the negation of civilization, and barbarism, bad faith and cruelty are the best one can expect from the Mohammedans.
Furthermore, he notes that Quellien's work draws heavily on the work of the French colonial department's —06 administrator, who published a work inwhich to a great extent mirrors John Esposito 's The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?]
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