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Neoclassicism was the dominant artistic style of the Enlightenment period and drew inspiration from the classical art and culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a movement that began during the 18th century in Europe and the American colonies. The key figures of the movement sought to reform society using the power of reason. Started by the preeminent philosophers of the day, the Enlightenment era lasted from about to , promoting science, reason, and intellectual exchange. The idea of advancing knowledge through reason emerged in response to new technology and the ability to exchange information easily thanks to mass printing, and also out of a backlash against previous systems, which valued the church and tradition above all else. The authority of science and empirical thought increasingly displaced religious authority, and the disciplines of alchemy and astrology lost credibility, leaving the more easily confirmed chemistry and astronomy. Scientific thought became more and more developed. The Enlightenment has long been hailed as the foundation of modern Western political and intellectual culture. The Enlightenment encouraged criticism of the corruption of Louis XVI and the aristocracy in France, leading to the beginning of the French Revolution inModernism is both a philosophical movement and an art movement that arose from broad transformations in Western society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The movement reflected a desire for the creation of new forms of art, philosophy, and social organization which reflected the newly emerging industrial worldincluding features such as urbanizationnew technologies, and war. Artists attempted to depart from traditional forms of art, which they considered outdated or obsolete. The poet Ezra Pound 's injunction to "Make it New" was the touchstone of the movement's approach. Modernist innovations included abstract artthe stream-of-consciousness novel, montage cinemaatonal and twelve-tone music, and divisionist painting. Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism [a] [2] [3] and made use of the works of the past by the employment of repriseincorporationrewriting, recapitulationrevision and parody.
While some scholars see modernism continuing the movement known as the enlightenment occurred during the 21st century, others see it evolving into late modernism or high modernism. Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines. Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche — to Samuel Beckett — According to Roger Griffinmodernism can be defined in a maximalist vision as a broad cultural, social, or political initiative, sustained by the ethos of "the temporality of the new".
According to one critic, modernism developed out of Romanticism 's revolt against the effects of the Industrial Revolution and bourgeois values: "The ground motive of modernism, Graff asserts, was criticism of the nineteenth-century bourgeois social order and its world view [ Turner —one of the greatest landscape painters of the 19th century, was a member of the Romantic movementas "a pioneer in the study of light, colour, and atmosphere", he "anticipated the French Impressionists " and therefore modernism "in breaking down conventional formulas of representation; [though] unlike them, he believed that his works should always express significant historical, mythological, literary, or other narrative themes. The dominant trends of industrial Victorian England were opposed, from aboutby the English poets and painters that constituted the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhoodbecause of their "opposition to technical skill without inspiration. The Pre-Raphaelites actually foreshadowed Manet —with whom Modernist painting most definitely begins.
They acted on a dissatisfaction with painting as practiced in their time, holding that the movement known as the enlightenment occurred during realism wasn't truthful enough. However, the Industrial Revolution continued. Influential innovations included steam-powered industrialization, and especially the development of railways, starting in Britain in the s, [26] and the subsequent advancements in physics, engineering, and architecture associated with this. A major 19th-century engineering achievement was The Crystal Palacethe huge cast-iron and plate glass exhibition hall built for the Great Exhibition of in London. Glass and iron were used in a similar monumental style in the of major religions today, two are monotheistic? of major railway terminals in Londonsuch as Paddington Station [27] and King's Cross station The latter broke all previous limitations on how tall man-made objects could be.
These engineering marvels radically altered the 19th-century urban environment and the daily lives of people. The human experience of time itself was altered, with the development of the electric telegraph from[29] and the adoption of standard time by British railway companies fromand in the rest of the world over the next fifty years. Despite continuing technological advances, the idea that history and civilization were inherently progressive, and that progress was always good, came under increasing attack in the nineteenth century.
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Arguments arose that the values of enoightenment artist and those of society were not merely different, but that Society was antithetical to Progress, and could not move forward in its present form. Early in the century, the philosopher Schopenhauer — The World as Will and Representationhad called into question the previous optimism, and his ideas had an important influence on later thinkers, including Nietzsche. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection undermined religious certainty and the idea of human uniqueness.
In particular, the notion that human beings were driven by the same impulses as "lower animals" proved to be difficult to reconcile with the idea of an ennobling spirituality. Historians, and writers in different disciplines, have suggested various dates as starting points for modernism. Historian William Everdellfor example, has argued that modernism began in eenlightenment s, when metaphorical or ontological continuity began to yield to the discrete with mathematician Richard Dedekind 's — Dedekind cutand Ludwig Boltzmann the movement known as the enlightenment occurred during — statistical thermodynamics.
On the other hand, visual art critic Clement Greenberg called Immanuel Kant — "the first real Modernist", [33] though he knoan wrote, "What can be safely called Modernism emerged in the middle of the last century—and rather locally, in France, with Baudelaire in literature and Manet in painting, and perhaps with Flauberttoo, in prose fiction. It was a while later, and not so locally, that Modernism appeared in music and architecture. In the arts and letters, two important approaches developed separately in France, dbq jacksonian democracy in the s.
The first was Impressionisma school of painting that initially focused on work done, not in studios, but outdoors en plein air.
History Of Futurism
Impressionist paintings demonstrated that human enligtenment do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from the most important commercial show of the time, the government-sponsored Paris Salonthe Impressionists organized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues during the s and s, timing them to coincide with the official Salon.
While most were in standard styles, but by inferior artists, the work of Manet attracted tremendous attention, and opened commercial doors to the movement.]
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