The: Difference between heredity and environment
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Mobile laser scanning and geometrical analysis revealed relationships between tree geometry and seed dispersal mechanism, latitude of origin, as well as growth. The structure and dynamics of a forest are defined by the architecture and growth patterns of its individual trees.
In turn, tree architecture and growth result from the interplay between the genetic building plans and environmental factors. We used mobile laser scanning MLS to scan trees and generated three-dimensional data of each tree. Tree architectural complexity was then characterized by fractal analysis using the box-dimension approach along with a topological measure of the top heaviness of a tree. Enviornment tree species studied originated from various latitudinal ranges, but were grown in the same environmental settings in the arboretum.
We found that trees originating from higher latitudes had significantly less top-heavy geometries than those from lower latitudes.
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Therefore, to a certain degree, the crown shape of tree species seems to be determined by their original habitat. We conclude that the use of 3D data from MLS in combination with geometrical analysis, including fractal analysis, is a promising tool to investigate tree architecture. Difference between heredity and environment science of tree structure and form dates back to Leonardo da Vinci, who investigated the cross-sectional area of branches and found it to be maintained across branching orders Richter The structure and dynamics of a forest stand are ultimately related to the architecture of the individual trees West et al. Therefore, the study difference between heredity and environment tree structure and form is highly relevant to diverse research fields, such as phylogeny and taxonomy, ecosystem modeling, tree physiology, and crucial for remote sensing of canopy landscapes, tree wind damage studies, carbon stock calculation for climate change mitigation schemes, as well as metabolic scaling theory Malhi et al.
Tree architecture ranges from slender, pole-like forms to large, sprawling, multilayered canopies Beech et al. Tree shape has been shown to be influenced by environmental factors such as wind Noguchi ; Watt et al.
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Over time, many studies have observed an effect idfference genetic predisposition on tree growth and branching patterns Bradshaw and Stettler ; Scotti-Saintagne et al. Depending on the environmental conditions at the growing site, many trees have a particular form that is distinguishable Lindh et al. For trees, difference between heredity and environment geometry and the resulting crown shape have a great influence on radiation utilization Niklas Therefore, crown architecture is also decisive for carbon and water fluxes diction essay the trees and the atmosphere Enquist et al. Kuuluvainen observed that depending on the solar angle of the sun determined by the latitude, there are different crown shapes of trees.
Solar interception hereity not the only factor determining species fitness. For example, seed dispersal impacts the success of propagation, and is also influenced by tree architecture Malhi et al. Although seed dispersal strategies have been studied extensively Darwin ; Schmidt ; Hamrick et al.
To date, we are aware of no study that has investigated the relationship between tree crown complexity and seed dispersal strategy.
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This is because tree architecture and structural complexity are difficult to quantify Su et al. While Xu et al. In addition, individuals were measured in the field, where confounding variables such as competition by neighboring trees could not be controlled. Until recently, highly labor-intensive and time-consuming methods were used to address tree structure in detail Bentley et al. Approaches to quantitatively assess tree structure and form were based on measures of specific tree features, such as height e. Lately, three-dimensional data from laser scanning approaches LiDAR are also used to derive tree characteristics such as tree crown volume Moorthy et al.
By allowing changes in tree architecture to be observed, the 3D data of the actual tree form diference help to improve difference between heredity and environment understanding of why trees are shaped a certain way.
Recently, with the new means of 3D characterization of tree structure based on laser scanning, the use of fractal analysis has become possible for further analysis of tree architecture Seidel Fractal geometry has been utilized as a tool for analyzing non-linear, fragmented, and irregularly structured objects, such as corals Martin-Garin et al. It was introduced by the mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot in the s to describe the complexity of a broad range of objects based on the degree to which the object can fill the available space Mandelbrot In fractal analysis, the box dimension D b is a measure that can be used to assess the architectural complexity of trees holistically Seidel et al.
By observing the change in the number of virtual boxes, one needs to fill the entire difference between heredity and environment occupied by an object in dependence of the size of the boxes one uses, and the box dimension is quantified in 3D model space. D b was shown to be sensitive to characteristics of tree shape as well as the internal structure of the tree crowns Seidel It was also shown to be positively related to the growth of several temperate and tropical species Seidel ; Seidel et al. The approach integrates the whole tree architecture in a single number, the box dimension, which was also successfully related to functional aspects of trees Difference between heredity and environment et al.]
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